Louisiana's Military Heritage:

     Battles, Campaigns, and Maneuvers

The West Florida Campaign &

the 1^st Battle of Baton Rouge

(August ~ September, 1779)

It was the summer of 1779 and war was upon Louisiana.

Since the outbreak of open rebellion in Britain's thirteen Atlantic colonies in 1775, Spanish officials in Louisiana had been on the alert for whatever rumors and echoes of the conflict that came their way, reporting them to their commanders in New Orleans and Havana and thence to the court in Madrid.  The revolting British colonies presented both pros and cons to the Spanish:  the rebellion served as a thorn in the side of Great Britain, but it also could serve to stir notions of independence among Carlos III's own American subjects.  Revolts had not yet occurred in British West Florida, immediately adjacent to Spanish Louisiana, but the proximity of the frontier settlements was a definite cause for concern.

The lands along the Gulf coast had undergone a musical chairs type transferal at the conclusion of the French & Indian War (Seven Years' War) in 1763.  Louisiana—until then, a French possession—was ceded to Spain as compensation for the loss of the Florida colonies (and also to keep it out of the hands of the victorious British who had laid claim not only to the Floridas but to all of French Canada).  West Florida extended from Natchez in the north to Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Maurepas in the south, and from the Mississippi River on the west to the Apalachicola River on the east.  The British governed the colony from Pensacola.

In the summer of 1776, two Americans—Captain George Gibson and a Lieutenant Linn—arrived in New Orleans from Fort Pitt (modern-day Pittsburg) after traveling down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers disguised as traders.  Their mission was to purchase muskets, blankets, medicine, and powder for the American war effort.  Louisiana's governor, Luis de Unzaga, was prepared to turn them away until the intervention of Oliver Pollock, an American partisan who was a friend of the governor and of his predecessor, Governor Alejandro O'Reilly.  Unzaga privately sold the gunpowder to Pollock which was then transported in part back upriver by Lt. Linn, with the second half going directly to Philadelphia via a vessel out of New Orleans.  To allay suspicions of Louisiana's neutrality by West Florida officials, Captain Gibson was arrested.  He was later released.

 

Governor Bernardo de Gálvez would later replace Unzaga in 1777.  Gálvez was more sympathetic to the Americans, but recognized Louisiana's vulnerability to British attack and so maintained the appearance of neutrality.  That same year, the captain of a British frigate protested the provision of safe harbor granted to the American privateer COLUMBUS, but Gálvez responded that all ships were allowed in New Orleans with immunity and that fighting on the river would incur the wrath of Spain.   Gálvez faced difficulties in maintaining Louisiana's neutrality while slowly and quietly shoring the colony's defenses.  In March of 1777, the Spanish crown sent a shipment of woolen cloth, gunpowder, muskets, quinine, and other medicines to New Orleans to "sell" to American agents.  But the merchant accompanying the shipment was known to have previously worked for the king, thus arousing suspicions on all fronts.  Gálvez quickly sent the man back to Havana and claimed the shipment for Louisiana's own battalion, quietly rotating it out of the warehouses disguised as other commodities at a later date to a trusted local merchant who then put it into American hands.  The governor urged the use of smugglers for future shipments rather than sending them through regular channels.

Bernardo de Gálvez, Spanish governor of Louisiana from 1777 to 1785, was friendly to the American cause during the War for Independence. Photo courtesy of the Louisiana State Museum.

The Americans also provided difficulties of their own.  The American commander at Fort Pitt proposed an invasion of West Florida which the governor dissuaded, fearing too early an action as his colony's defenses were not yet adequate.  A shipment of provisions upriver to Fort Pitt caught the attention of Governor Peter Chester of West Florida whose protest Gálvez sidestepped by claiming ignorance of the purchasers' origins.  Other such shipments by Oliver Pollock, made possible through secret loans by Gálvez, helped to finance part of the Ohio Valley campaign of George Rogers Clark in 1778.

In February of 1778, Captain James Willing, a former resident of Natchez now serving in the Continental Navy, departed Fort Pitt with an expedition of thirty (30) men, bound for New Orleans to obtain more war supplies.  Aboard a small, armed boat dubbed RATTLETRAP, they raided British forts and property all down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.  Willing compelled an oath of neutrality from the British citizenry at Natchez on February 19.  His men continued their raids southward as far inland as the Amite River and captured the 16-gun vessel REBECCA at Manchac on February 23.  Hearing of Willing's exploits, a group of sympathizers in New Orleans floated downriver to capture the British vessels NEPTUNE and DESPATCH.

The intent of Willing's campaign was to further the American cause along the river and procure either neutrality or rebellion from the citizens of West Florida.  The raiding and plundering backfired, though, and turned most of the inhabitants against the United States.  However, in a happy coincidence for Gálvez, it also helped to allay suspicions of Louisiana's bias and confirm the appearance of neutrality.  As refugees from West Florida fled into Spanish Louisiana with their property and their lives, the governor extended to them the colony's hospitality and protection.  By the same token, when the Americans arrived in New Orleans, the same rights were granted to Willing and his men so long as no hostilities occurred on Spanish soil or in the river in which both banks were controlled by Spain.

Under these conditions, Willing was forced to return those prizes taken in Spanish territory (including the NEPTUNE), which he did grudgingly.  This satisfied the commander of the British warship SYLPH which lay in port in New Orleans at this time.  Shortly thereafter, she departed for Pensacola.

But the British frigate HOUND and a sistership soon arrived and the British sloop WEST FLORIDA now also patrolled the shallow waters of Lake Pontchartrain.  Though Gálvez had dodged a bullet and maintained and solidified his neutrality, his time was running out.  He urged the departure of the Americans and Willing's men subsequently returned north to Fort Pitt through Spanish territory on the west bank of the Mississippi now that the British were waiting for them on the river, in the lake, and in West Florida.  Willing—who had worn out his welcome with Gálvez and Pollock both—escaped New Orleans by sea aboard a sloop bound for Philadelphia but the vessel was captured and Willing imprisoned.  He was returned to the Americans in a prisoner exchange in late 1779.

The departure of the Americans eased tensions and allowed Gálvez to continue his build-up of defenses.  Louisiana's appearance of neutrality continued to be strengthened and British suspicions eased by other acts of kindness and diplomacy throughout late 1778 and early 1779.  The governor sent 150 barrels of flour to the British at Pensacola upon hearing of a shortage.  In return for the sanctuary offered to his citizens by Gálvez during Willing's depredations, Governor Chester of West Florida offered Spanish residents of Point Coupée safe haven across the river at Manchac when their homes suffered flooding.  The British post at Manchac later asked for aid during a shortage, sending the vessel ADVENTURE downriver to New Orleans to procure supplies and the fort's commander also later requested the purchase of 100 cattle from Opelousas.  The final touch was the diplomatic mission of Jacinto Panis, sent by Gálvez to Mobile and Pensacola to secure guarantees of Louisiana's rights as a neutral in England's war with its revolting colonies.  But what the British did not know was that Panis was a spy scouting the lay-out of their defenses.

In two years' time, Gálvez had increased the number of Army regulars from just over 437 to over 750 and swelled the militia from 136 to 1,500 men.  Three shallow-draft gunboats were also constructed for use on the river.  A battery of eight cannon now protected New Orleans.  In order to feed his troops, Gálvez arranged a supply of meat from Domingo Cabello y Robles, governor of Texas.  Between 1779 and 1782, Texan rancheros and vaqueros conducted cattle drives from La Bahía to Opelousas via Nacogdoches and Natchitoches, bringing approximately 10,000 cattle to feed Louisiana's military forces.

Neither had the Americans been idle during this time, though further arms shipments upriver were now out of the question.  Oliver Pollock had purchased the REBECCA—taken by Willing as a prize at Manchac—and outfitted her with 24 guns, renaming her the MORRIS.  She was placed under the command of Captain William Pickles and was being prepared for operations on the lakes and the upper Mississippi.

The French had joined the war on the American side in 1778 following the British defeat at Saratoga, New York.  Through a series of entangling alliances, the colonists gained two extra allies:  the Dutch and the Spanish, both of whom were pledged to fight Britain in defense of France.  As such, Spain notified its colonies of the declaration of war on May 18, 1779, with news reaching Havana in July.

Gálvez, however, had already noted a reinforcement of British troops at Manchac and had intercepted letters bound for Natchez detailing a planned attack on New Orleans.  He secretly began assembling his forces, gathering a small river fleet together to surprise the British posts on the Mississippi.  But a hurricane struck New Orleans on August 18 and destroyed his fleet, as well as the American gunboat MORRIS and eleven of her crew.  With only four boats of the original fleet raised, more boats were brought in to carry munitions and cannons and Gálvez provided an armed schooner to Pollock as a replacement for the lost MORRIS.  Taking the name of her predecessor, this new MORRIS was again placed under the command of Captain Pickles.

On August 27, Gálvez led a force of 667 men upriver to Fort Bute on Bayou Manchac at the border between Spanish Louisiana and British West Florida.  His force grew en route as he recruited slaves, Acadians (who had no love for the British after their expulsion from Canada), Indian allies, and other colonists.  By the time he reached Manchac on September 06, his command included 1,427 men.

The British had expected an attack on Fort Bute and had withdrawn their main numbers to Fort Richmond at Baton Rouge, leaving only a token force at Manchac.  Gálvez now placed his regulars north of Fort Bute to prevent potential reinforcements from Baton Rouge.  At dawn on September 07, the militia assaulted the fort and took it by surprise with no losses.

Even as the Spanish moved northward toward Baton Rouge, the Americans under Captain Pickles moved to secure Lake Pontchartrain to prevent British reinforcements out of Pensacola from attacking New Orleans or reinforcing Baton Rouge or Manchac.  The MORRIS overtook the WEST FLORIDA and a short, yet intense battle took place.  The Americans boarded the WEST FLORIDA and took her as a prize.  The victory was impressive given that the British sloop seriously outgunned the second MORRIS.  The prize was returned to New Orleans, fitted out by Pollock and the Spanish, and commissioned into the Continental Navy under Captain Pickles' command.

Gálvez had by now reached Baton Rouge.  But in reconnoitering the defenses, it was determined that Fort Richmond was much more formidable than Fort Bute had been.  A direct assault would prove too costly.  Therefore, in an effort to get his artillery into position, the governor sent a detachment into a wooded area near the fort on the night of September 20 as a diversion.  The British took the bait and bombarded the grove throughout the night.  Under cover of the diversion and the night, the Spanish moved their artillery into position on the opposite side of the fort within range of musket fire.  With the light of morning, the new threat was discovered and the British redirected their fire against the Spanish batteries to no effect as they were now quite well sheltered.

 

Meanwhile, Spanish forces from Point Coupée, under the command of Carlos Grand Pré, seized British posts on Thompson's Creek and the Amite River, cutting communications between Baton Rouge and Natchez and preventing the possibility of reinforcements arriving from the north.   The Spanish bombardment of Fort Richmond lasted only a matter of hours on the morning of September 21, 1779.  So damaged was the fort that the British commander, Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Dickinson, was forced to surrender.  As part of negotiations, Gálvez demanded that the peaceful surrender of Fort Panmure at Natchez be included.  Dickinson assented and so Captain Anthony Forster was obliged to turn the fort at Natchez over to Captain Juan Delavillebeuvre and his forces on October 05 without contest.

Spanish forces under Governor Bernardo de Gálvez attack the British garrison of Fort Richmond at Baton Rouge on September 21, 1779.  The British loss at Baton Rouge prompted the surrender of Fort Panmure at Natchez, securing the Mississippi River under Spanish control Artwork copyright of David I. Norwood.

West Florida was rife with activity at this time.  While Gálvez was at work reducing Fort Richmond, Captain Pickles sailed to Bayou La Combe and the Tauchipaho River on the north shore of Lake Pontchartrain, claiming the area for the United States and demanding an oath of allegiance from its citizens.  At Gálveztown (at the confluence of the Amite River and Bayou Manchac), Spanish forces seized four British supply vessels.  Another boat was captured on the river, with three more soon taken on the lakes.  Spanish naval commander Vizente Rillieux took a British transport at Pass Manchac between Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain.  With these victories, Gálvez secured the Mississippi River from British control and his preemptive strike averted a large-scale assult on New Orleans from British forces in Pensacola and Canada.

For the next two years, New Orleans—in conjunction with Havana—served as a base of operations against the British as the Spanish drove them from West Florida in operations against Fort Charlotte at Mobile and Fort George at Pensacola.  Following the cessation of hostilities in 1783, Gálvez was appointed Captain-General of Cuba in 1784 by the Spanish crown and later Viceroy of Mexico in 1785.  He died of a fever in Mexico on November 30, 1786, at the age of thirty-eight.

Three native-born Louisiana citizens were killed during the War for American Independence—Simon Official and Daniel Villars at Mobile (1780) and Francisco Godeau at Pensacola (April 29, 1781).  Though subjects of Spain, their names are today etched into the blank granite walls of the Louisiana Memorial Plaza, forever giving evidence of their sacrifice on behalf of Louisiana and—unbeknownst to them—the future of American freedom.

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Sources used in the compilation of this article:

The American Forts Network.

Bernardo de Gálvez in Louisiana:  1776-1783, by John Walton Caughey.  Pelican Publishing Co. (1972).

"Bernardo de Gálvez:  The Forgotten Revolutionary Conquistador Who Saved Louisiana," by Thomas Fleming. 

     American Heritage Magazine, April/May 1982, Vol. 33, Issue 3.

Louisiana:  A History, edited by Bennett H. Wall.  The Forum Press (1984).

The Naval Historical Center.

Mexico Society of the Sons of the American Revolution
The State of Louisiana—Department of Culture, Recreation, and Tourism.

Texas State Historical Association—Handbook of Texas Online.

**Copyright 1997-2007 by Louisiana Naval War Memorial Commission**